Researching and teaching in EMI contexts: Current issues and future directions

Xuan Minh Ngo

Tuesday 5 August 2025

Featured expert: Dr Sarah Hopkyns, University of St Andrews, UK

Interviewer and editor: Dr Xuan Minh Ngo, University of St Andrews, UK

Introduction

This Sociocultural Chat features Dr Sarah Hopkyns, a leading expert in English-Medium Instruction (EMI). Dr Hopkyns is an Assistant Professor /  Lecturer in TESOL and International Education at the University of St Andrews and an Assistant Professor /  Lecturer in Intercultural Communication at University College London. She is also a visiting research fellow at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies. She has published extensively on English-medium instruction (EMI) in multilingual and multicultural contexts, particularly in the United Arab Emirates (UAE). Her work has shed light on critical issues such as identity, linguistic diversity, and policy challenges within EMI settings. In this Sociocultural Chat, Dr Hopkyns will share her insights on EMI research, practical advice for teachers, and reflections on her career to date.

Background and Overview

Minh: Thank you very much, Dr Hopkyns, for joining us. Could you share a bit about your academic and professional journey? What led you to focus on English-Medium Instruction (EMI) as a central area of your research? Additionally, for those who are unfamiliar with EMI, could you provide a brief definition of this term?

Sarah: Thank you for having me. Please call me Sarah. I began my teaching career in Japan, working at an English language school where I taught students of all ages. Later, I moved to Vancouver, Canada, where I continued teaching at a language college for adults. The students came from all over the world, including Gulf countries such as Saudi Arabia.

I then moved to Abu Dhabi, where I lived for 11 years and taught at an English-Medium Instruction (EMI) university. It was my first experience teaching in an EMI context, and it sparked my interest in exploring the implications of EMI more deeply. I don’t view EMI as a topic or an area I necessarily promote; rather, I take a critical lens when engaging with it as a research area. I became interested in the challenges and complexities I observed in my teaching context and wanted to open up dialogue around those challenges.

I also found it problematic that English was the assumed language of communication in the university beyond instruction. There seemed to be a clash between students’ multilingual repertoires and a very English-only setting or English-only expectations in the university. So, I wanted to dig deeper and look at my context critically.

If I were to define EMI, there are many ways to do that. Most scholars, when they write about EMI, use Macaro’s definition from his 2018 book English Medium Instruction by Oxford University Press. This definition focuses on the fact that English is being used as a medium of instruction in contexts where learners don’t have English as their first language, and where the purpose of instruction isn’t to focus on language but to focus on content in the medium of English. That’s a fine definition, but since then, other scholars have pointed to new directions. One that I like is by Diane Pecorari and Hans Malmström. They have a fourfold definition where they say that English medium instruction includes English being used as a language for instructional purposes; English is not itself the subject being taught; language development is not the primary intended outcome, and English is usually the second language of learners. This definition is a little similar to Macaro’s definition but expand upon it slightly.

Other scholars have pointed out that English in EMI settings is not just contained to the classroom, and it’s not just being used for instructional purposes. Often in EMI universities, you’ll see English in the whole university ecosystem. Therefore, some scholars argue that English Medium Education (EME) is a better term to use.

I also really like that term because I think it’s more fitting for most English-medium universities. It not only looks at instruction but also at linguistic landscapes in the space, which language(s) researchers are publishing in, and even the commercial spaces in the university, like which language is being used to advertise products. So, it’s more than just instruction.

Minh: Fascinating! But anyway, the term EMI has somewhat persisted, hasn’t it? It doesn’t seem like another term will replace EMI anytime soon.

Sarah: Yes, but I think people like to expand the term these days. Even though there are journals named after EMI, like JEMI, the Journal of English-Medium Instruction, most people who write or speak about EMI still argue that we need to look beyond just instruction.

Minh: Interesting! I think it’s worth mentioning another common term in the EMI literature, namely ‘translanguaging’. Some people, especially those unfamiliar with EMI, often say that ‘translanguaging’ is just a fancy way of saying ‘codeswitching’. So how do you respond to those people?

Sarah: EMI and translanguaging are different topics, but translanguaging is very relevant to EMI contexts because students have more than one language, and they often use their full linguistic repertoires in EMI settings. Translanguaging is more than code-switching, because it involves not only linguistic repertoires but also semiotic modes of communication, things like gestures, images, and ways of acting. It’s also more fluid. It’s not about switching back and forth between two distinct languages, but rather a more fluid representation of linguistic repertoires. For example, you might have sentences that go beyond one language, involving multiple languages and multimodal features.

Different translanguaging scholars take different approaches. Some take a soft approach, believing languages are still distinct and used as such. Others take a strong approach and argue that there are no clear boundaries between languages and that languages flow into each other naturally. From that perspective, it’s hard to say that speakers are switching between two separate systems, as code-switching assumes.

Minh: Your research often highlights the complexities and challenges of EMI in multilingual contexts, such as the UAE. Could you summarise some of the key findings from your studies?

Sarah: Yeah. I think every context is different, so it’s very important to realise that it’s highly contextual. What might be issues in one context won’t necessarily be issues in another. In the UAE context, where most of my research takes place, one major issue is the lack of choice over the medium of instruction. EMI dominates in the UAE, and all universities use English-medium instruction. This includes government universities, private universities, and international branch campuses. They don’t use it for all subjects, but for most subjects, English-medium instruction is the ‘choice’ made for students.

That’s an issue because some students are not natural linguists. They may be excellent at content learning but struggle when that content is delivered through the medium of English. There is no choice but to study the content in English, which can lead to different emotions around EMI, such as resentment, disappointment, and sometimes even shame.

There’s been a lot of research in the UAE looking at emotions around EMI, and I think that’s a big area of interest in that context. Another common research topic is the use of L1 or the use of translanguaging, looking at both the ideologies and actual language practices.

EMI Research

Minh: Let’s talk more about EMI research. What advice would you give to postgraduate students or early-career researchers who want to get started with EMI research? Are there specific methodologies or approaches you find particularly effective?

Sarah: Yes. I want to mention a useful book called Research Methods in English Medium Instruction, edited by Jack Pun and Samantha Curle. It’s great because it has a range of chapters, all looking at different methodologies used in EMI research. There’s quite a wide range of approaches mentioned. So, I do recommend it if early-career researchers are looking at EMI because it can give them some good ideas for different ways to approach EMI research.

Personally, I tend to use qualitative methods. I often do case studies or take a phenomenological approach to research because I think it’s a topic that lends itself to qualitative approaches. You can go very deeply into the issues and gain interesting, nuanced perspectives through those methods.

Minh: What do you see as the most under-researched or emerging areas in EMI? Are there particular topics or contexts you believe deserve more attention in future studies?

Sarah: Yes, so many research projects look at attitudes towards EMI, especially from the perspective of students and teachers, but …

For example, I have an article that I co-wrote with my colleague, Kay Gallagher, which has been recently published in System. We looked at English language leaders in EMI higher education, people who hold management positions, and their perspectives on EMI globally. When we were doing the literature review, we found that there wasn’t much research looking at managers’ or leaders’ perspectives. So, I think that’s definitely an area where we need to see more research, as these stakeholders can often provide a ‘bird’s eye view’ of the phenomenon.

Minh: For postgraduate students new to EMI, what foundational texts or authors would you recommend as essential readings? How have these works influenced your own research?

Sarah: I think Ernesto Macaro’s book English Medium Instruction is a good place to start. He looks at different contexts around the world, so it’s useful for definitions and for highlighting some of the main issues related to EMI. It also gives an excellent overview of the different challenges that exist in different contexts. But I would say that if you want to dive more deeply into a specific context, then it’s important to read local scholars’ work on that context in more depth.

There are also many other scholars whose work I would recommend, including Nicola Galloway, Heath Rose, Jim McKinley, David Block, Christina Hultgren, and  Dogan Yuksel. They look at a range of different contexts, including Japan, Turkey, and Spain. These scholars publish a lot on EMI, and there might be a tendency for early-career researchers to turn to these texts because they’re widely available and cited. However, one issue I’ve become particularly aware of recently is Anglo-centricity in research. There’s often a tendency to prioritise texts by ‘big-name scholars’ based in UK or US universities. If you’re researching a specific context, it’s really important to gain insights from local authors’ scholarship. It’s also important to engage with critical approaches. I particularly like the work of Pramod Sah, Peter De Costa, Shaila Sultana, and Sender Dovchin as they examine a range of contexts using a critical lens.

I also appreciate Jennifer Jenkins’ work on linguistic landscaping in internationalised universities in the UK. This is what I should have mentioned earlier when talking about defining EMI. Scholars are now pointing out that English or Anglophone universities can also be considered EMI institutions, not because of where they are located, but because of the composition of the student body. Often, in UK universities, for example, you’ll have just as many second language learners in the classroom as in any other global context. So they’re linguistically diverse, and therefore could also be called English-medium instruction contexts.

Practical Insights for Teachers

Minh: Your work often bridges research and practice. Based on your findings, what practical advice would you offer teachers implementing EMI in multilingual classrooms, especially in higher education?

Sarah: That means evaluating what the students’ needs are, both linguistic and cultural, and also having open discussions about language ideologies and language use. It’s important not to place firm expectations on students to only use English in the classroom.

Another key point is to try and localise materials. Often in EMI contexts, the textbooks or seminal texts used are culturally biased. They tend to be imported from the West and don’t necessarily apply to the local context. I think being critical about the materials used, as well as the language ideologies present in the space, is really important. One book I recommend that takes a critical approach is The Secret Life of English-Medium Instruction in Higher Education. It looks at what you might call the dark side of EMI. It addresses language ideologies and explores some of the struggles that students face in these contexts.

Minh: EMI is also increasingly adopted in the K-12 sector, especially in international schools. Do you have any advice for teachers in this context?

Sarah: I think some of the issues that are relevant to higher education are also relevant to the K–12 sector. But some researchers I often draw on do focus specifically on K–12, including Pramod Sah’s work that I mentioned previously. Also, in the UAE context, Raees Calafato looks at multilingualism and language attitudes in schools. When I read scholars’ work that focuses on the K–12 sector, I can see that some issues are different. One key difference is how important parents’ ideologies are and how much influence parents have in that sector. Their opinions and perspectives really matter and can strongly affect students’ education and choices. There’s also the idea that EMI represents something elite. In many contexts, it’s not just seen as a form of capital, but as something students should aspire to, often without critically considering other options.

Minh: That sounds related to Bourdieu’s perspective that we’ve covered in a previous Sociocultural Chat, right?

Sarah: Yeah, that’s symbolic power. There are many scholars who look at issues such as symbolic power, elitism, capital, and the political side of EMI. A lot of scholars analysing EMI also examine concepts like neoliberalism, the effects of globalisation, and coloniality, which are larger issues that influence EMI.

Minh: In some EMI contexts, teachers are required to adopt the English-only policy. In your opinion, how can teachers navigate institutional policies that mandate English-only instruction while addressing students’ linguistic and cultural diversity?

Sarah: There may be broad policies on English-only, but each teacher is their own policy maker within their classroom. They have some control over what they represent as being legitimate in that space. Some people argue that teachers can’t really use translanguaging effectively if they don’t speak all their students’ languages. But other scholars have argued that this doesn’t have to be a barrier. It needn’t prevent teachers from using or embracing translanguaging. For example, scholars like Li Wei advocate for translanguaging spaces, where students are encouraged to use translanguaging in group work or when planning projects. It doesn’t necessarily mean the teacher needs to speak all the students’ languages. It’s more about the teacher’s attitude, recognising the classroom as a multilingual space and welcoming translanguaging within it. That can really help students feel more comfortable. It can also aid learning and strengthen identities, especially in a space that’s dominated by English.

Minh: Your previous statement that teachers are their own policymakers really stands out. Can you elaborate further on what role students’ home languages play in the success of EMI programs, and how teachers can leverage students’ multilingual resources?

Sarah: I think students’ home languages play a big role, or they should play a big role, in EMI contexts. But often, there are issues that come from the students themselves, because they’ve internalised ideologies around English-only policies as what they have to follow. I’ve done a lot of reading on different contexts where the emotion of guilt is often associated with using home languages in EMI classrooms. Students might feel that it’s natural to use their full linguistic repertoires, but some feel guilty when they use their home language in the classroom. Some teachers have similar attitudes. They feel that they should be following the policy and that they shouldn’t use or allow the use of the L1 in class. That can make it harder for translanguaging to be seen as legitimate, especially if both students and teachers are coming into the space with those ideologies in place. I think it is challenging, but as I said before, there are ways in which translanguaging can be embraced like creating translanguaging spaces.

Minh: Am I right in understanding that the EMI framework is quite flexible, and that it allows teachers and students to embrace their home languages?

Sarah: I think it depends on the context and the ideologies that are at play. Even within one institution, I’ve seen a wide range of perspectives. I’ve done research in the UAE at one university, and when I interviewed teachers about translanguaging in their classrooms, I got very different responses. Some teachers embraced translanguaging and even incorporated it formally into their activities. Others say, “No, I only believe that English should be used in the space.” So, it really varies and is highly individual regarding whether teachers embrace it or not.

Reflections and Future Directions

Minh: How do you see EMI evolving globally, particularly in non-Western contexts like the UAE or China? What trends or shifts do you anticipate in the coming years?

Sarah: I think there’s still going to be a big demand for English-medium instruction, because it has dominated for so long and English still dominates the publishing industry and many other spheres. But there is a growing global presence of Mandarin Chinese: Even in the UAE context, Mandarin is now the third language taught in schools. In a recent study I conducted on students’ perspectives on the growth of Chinese in the UAE, students tended to have very positive attitudes toward Chinese. They saw it as a future language that will be very useful. So, I think that’s one trend: Chinese is becoming more globally relevant. However, in my study, when students were asked whether Chinese would become more important than English, most disagreed or felt it would take a long time to happen, not within their lifetime. Still, I believe there will be, and already is, a shift toward embracing multilingualism and translanguaging.

Minh: Interesting! Reflecting on your career so far, what has been the most surprising or rewarding aspect of researching EMI and teaching in EMI contexts? Are there any lessons or insights you’d like to share with teachers and researchers in the field?

Sarah: I moved to my former UAE EMI university in 2012, so that’s over ten years ago, and during that time I’ve definitely seen shifts in mindset around English-medium instruction and multilingualism. I think the most satisfying thing has been seeing teachers move toward embracing translanguaging in these contexts. Also, the amount of research that has been done on EMI has grown significantly, showing that people are very interested in it as a subfield.

That includes scholars from different fields, as well as perspectives from industry and policymakers. It’s really becoming an issue that’s relevant to a wider group of people, which is satisfying to see.

Closing

Minh:  Your perspectives on English-Medium Instruction have truly enriched our understanding of this field. Before we wrap up, is there anything else you’d like to share with our audience? Perhaps some words of encouragement for those exploring EMI in their teaching or research?

Sarah: I think it’s very important to keep observing your own context. Things change very quickly, and what might be true this year might not be true the following year. So even if you’re already researching an area, it’s important to keep revisiting it and paying attention to new developments. Also, in terms of publishing, one thing I’ve learned is that if you want to have the most impact or reach the widest audience, it’s important not only to publish in academic outlets but also to consider public-facing pieces. That way, you can raise more awareness about your issue and your context.

Minh: Thank you so much, Sarah, for this engaging and insightful conversation.

Sarah: Thank you for having me and asking these important questions.

Note on contributors

Featured expert

Dr Sarah Hopkyns has taught and researched in higher education for two decades with experience in multiple global contexts such as Japan, Canada, the United Arab Emirates (UAE) and the UK.  Sarah is a Lecturer / Assistant Professor in TESOL and International Education at the University of St Andrews and a lecturer / Assistant Professor in Intercultural Communication at University College London. In addition, she is a Visiting Research Fellow at the Oxford Centre for Islamic Studies (2024-2025) and a Senior Fellow of the Higher Education Academy. Sarah has published widely in journals such as Language and Intercultural Communication, Journal of English medium Instruction, System, Linguistics and Education, Multilingua, and World Englishes, and has published numerous books and book chapters on topics such as language and identity, English medium instruction, and translingual practices. Sarah is the Co-editor in Chief of St Andrews Journal of International and Language Education (SAJILE) and she sits on the editorial board for the Journal of Language, Identity and Education.

Interviewer and editor

Dr Xuan Minh Ngo is an Associate Lecturer in International Education and TESOL at the University of St Andrews, UK. His research interests lie in the intersection of language assessment, language policy, teacher education, and educational technology. His works have been published in System, Language Teaching Research, English Today, Asian Englishes, The Qualitative Report, Asian EFL Journal, Journal of World Languages, and recent Routledge, Springer, and Cambridge edited collections. Minh also serves on the Editorial Boards of the journal of AsiaTEFL and St Andrews Journal of International and Language Education (SAJILE).

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